Consider culture as an expression of identity and explore the ways in Essay

Consider culture as an expression of identity and explore the ways in which literature and art are used to shape that identity f - Essay Example This paper offers a discussion of the ways in which literature and art can be used to shape an identity for political purposes. It will argue on the purpose that is played by literature and art on one hand and politician on the other as well as how both relate in the support for political viewpoints, assumptions, policy and agendas. As Fearon (1999) points out, identity is a way in which a certain group in the society sees and defines itself and the way the other groups and individuals in the society see and define them. The group forms its identity through a socialization process which eventually influences the prevailing social institutions like the mass media, education system and the family. Identity is very important since it marks the similarities and differences that exist in the society. Identity is used to bring about a factor like social class with its own lifestyle, clothes, income level, shopping places, TV programmes and movies, leisure, sport, music, food, accent and ma ny other activities that emphasizes a certain class. Eventually, when individuals and groups identify themselves through such kind of life, it becomes a way of life or a culture of its own. The alleged characteristics and behaviors are hence used to place individuals in a certain social category. Social identity in the first instance is a label that groups a number of people by their shared features. However, beyond labeling, it has a number of implications that reflect in cognitive beliefs, emotional association or behavioral consequences Castells (2011). The feeling of inclusion to a cultural group is important to individuals’ sense of self and their relationship with others. Cultural identity is expressed through certain ways of dressing, earning, participation in rituals and sharing certain types of information. Pieces of literature and art work are progressively produced and consumed by the society. Both artists and political groups represent a future reality that must b e communicated to the society. On one hand, a dominant class that has assumed or wishes to assume power educate themselves with books, photographs, making trips to cultural homeland, videos and those knowledge materials passed down from elders. By arming themselves with accurate information about a culture, they are able to express it fully. As Castells (2011) observed, in most society today, a high culture that is seen as superior to other culture can be identified. There are aspects that high culture uses as a way to be set apart from day-to-day life. The culture is presented as something special and one to be treated with reverence and respect. To sustain that supremacy, there are things that are part of the heritage and with lasting value that are taken as worth preserving. Literature and art consist of major products and are often found in special places including museums, concert hall, galleries and theatres. High culture uses products like serious news, documentaries, program mes and classical music to hold privilege and great power in society. These products are used to assert or make the other forms of cultures to see, accept and recognize that identity. These products are used as socially distinguished features that allow a person to have special pride in, honor,

Reading Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading Questions - Assignment Example Michael (1967) defines formative evaluation as a constructive process of evaluation where a great emphasis is laid on the inputs put in the systems that later determine the processes’ quality and the system’s outputs. For instance, in an academic institution, the administration of continuous assessment Tests (CATS) is a pertinent example that can be used to explain; in system design, it used to test each and every stage’s performance, judge whether each state is performing according to specifications. It indicates how the system is performing-the content, the teaching methods, the financing and general administration of education in schools or any other academic institutions. On the other hand, summative evaluation is an evaluation process that determines the ‘worth’ of the entire program or measure against the stated objectives at the beginning of the program or course. A good example is an exam or a series of exams administered at the end of a course or a program. These exams are meant to judge whether the program is effective and reliable, valid content, effective administration or even the pedagogical issues related to teaching processes. The paper has attempted to discuss two of the fallacies or ‘errors of interpretations’ concerning these two fundamental evaluation processes. It will examine the first and second fallacy respectively. The first fallacy states that both terms were introduced to play different roles for evaluation. This distinction between them concerns the relation of the evaluative information to its environment and use that relate to matters of client and the context. The author further notes that there is no essential difference in their properties themselves, for example, between their causal and correlational claims; measures of efficiency and measures of effectiveness. Both formative and summative are different in their functions they serve to determine the extent to which each one them goes. The author points

Emergence Of Online Movie Streaming Media Essay

Emergence Of Online Movie Streaming Media Essay The focus of the following discussion paper is on the Macro Environmental theme of Online Movie Streaming and its impact on the consumer behaviour in the global movie industry. The following sources were taken into account as research material to bring about the understanding of the prospective influences this change that could thrust upon the industry. Source Critical Evaluation of Source Wall Street Journal (WSJ) Article on Theatre Loyalty Program [1] Description The article is based on introducing a new loyalty reward program by AMC theatres to its audience. Credibility The article is based on an announcement made by AMC theatres and has a high credibility. Reliability Wall Street Journal is published in New York, owned by Dow Jones Co. and has the largest circulation in the U.S. Merit Being the film industry reporter at WSJ, Michelle Kung is also a Graduate from the Harvard University. Relevance This article has a high relevance as it talks about retaining and gaining moviegoers in the cinema industry. Time Magazine Article [2] Description The article is based on moving from film to digital movies with different opinions held by famous individuals attached to the movie industry. Credibility The author has described logically the difference between the digital and film industry bringing about arguments wherever necessary. Reliability The magazine is widely circulated worldwide being the largest weekly news magazine. Merit Richard Corliss is a writer at Time Magazine that mainly focus on the movie, music and sports industries who is also educated about the film industry. Relevance This article has a medium relevance in relation to the discussion paper. Digital Music and Movies Report The true cost of free entertainment [3] Description The document is based on possible risks faced when seeking for digital information. Credibility Moderates credibility as it is published McAfee, the worlds most leading security technology company. Reliability- Moderate reliability as tech information can be updated on a regular basis. Relevance- High relevance to the topic. Theatrical Statistics [4] Description This document gives a range of statistical data on the trends of the Cinema industry in the U.S. / Canada and the world. Credibility- Moderate credibility as it is published by the Motion Picture Association of America Reliability Low reliability as the data may not be accurate Relevance High relevance to the topic. New York Times Article on You tube [5] Description About YouTube expanding video rental services. Credibility High credibility since it is published by New York Times. Reliability- High reliability as the New York Times is daily published American newspaper which is also available in the world wide web. Merit C. Miller is a writer at New York Times. Relevance High relevance to the topic in describing key players New York Times Article on Netflix [6] Description Netflix introducing new online streaming movies instead of renting DVDs to its customers. Credibility High credibility as material is published by the New York Times Reliability High reliability Merit Nick Bilton is the main tech writer and a reporter at New York Time Relevance High relevance in describing the changes in the industry. Wall Street Journal Article on Online movie streaming trends (Netflix rising Cost) [7] Description Netflixs increasing cost on licence content Reliability High reliability Merit Nick Wingfield is a reporter a WSJ Relevance Moderate relvance Interview held by Mr. Bennett Rathnayake on the impact on movie screening on theatres and its recent consumer trends. [a] Mr. Bennett Ratnayake is a famous movie producer in the Sri Lankan cinema that has produced many films over the past 20 years. The discussion was personally carried out on the 29th of April 2011 at Ben Films Production office, Colombo and was based on the fluctuating trends in the moviegoer audience. Interview held by Mr. Thissa Nagodavithana on obtaining copyrights on movies post screening. [b] Mr. Thissa Nagodavithana has the copyrights for all old Sinhala films after being screened in Cinemas. The discussion was personally carried out on the 17th of April 2011 at Colombo and was based on the violations of copyrights through streaming movies on various websites. Questionnaire conducted in order to understand the consumer preference on watching movies [Appendix 1] For the purpose of this report a short questionnaire was carried in order to identify the consumer preference in modes of entertainment with regard to movies. Word Count: 663 2.0 Task 02 Discussion Paper 2.1 Abstract The purpose of the following discussion paper is to understand the new technological advancements in the movie industry and its impact on consumer behaviour. To support the purpose of this report, both primary and secondary data has been taken into consideration. After a literature review of the available resources, the drastic changes on consumer behaviour were examined. It was determined that digital technologies have influenced the consumers to have a preference on home movies over cinemas. 2.2 Introduction Over the years, innovation of new technology has taken a new turn and has caused a major impact on life styles and behaviour of consumers. The history of the movie industry goes way back to 1896, where Thomas A. Edison and Thomas Armat presented the first motion picture on a public screen in the United States of America. [9] There onwards, it has evolved from nickelodeons to videocassettes, DVDs and now to various online movie streams. Popular online DVD and Blu-ray  [1]  disc rental services such as Netflix, which also offers services such as movie downloading facilities through devices such as Wii, PS3 X-box, has cultivated a major influence on consumer behaviour complementing the busy schedules of each individual. [10] Due to high digital accessibility, most consumers have many options on browsing the Internet to choose their favourite movies. In addition, the current economic situations have increased the cost sensitivity of the consumers. The demand for digital content consumption by consumers will be hoisted in the near future that will cause in launching new technological devices. [11] The aim of the following discussion paper is to further understand the rising trend of online movie streaming and rentals in the movie industry and its impact on consumer behaviour. A discussion of this nature will benefit the movie industry in understanding the nature of the impact on consumer behaviour due to online movie streaming. 2.3 Research Hypothesis The emerging theme of online movie streaming and rentals in collaboration with high tech devices will make a significant impact on consumer behaviour. In order to prove the above statement a secondary research was undertaken in the form of a literature review through an industry analysis, the impact on the MESO factor, consumer behaviour, analysis of the key players in the online movie industry etc. 2.4 Limitations of the study The primary research carried out mostly limited to Sri Lankan consumers (i.e interviews, questionnaire). The sampling was limited to a certain number and the secondary research was mostly based on statistics available in U.S.A. 3.0 The Emerging MACRO Theme Online Movie Streaming Rentals In an era of digital advancements, it is not difficult to define the emerging theme of Online Movie Streaming and Rentals. Currently, there are hundreds of websites widely available to consumers to download and stream movies at a lesser cost, making it a popular among consumers in most parts of the world. Technologies such as Placeshifting, which allows anyone with a broadband Internet connection to have video streams from their home television set or personal video recorder (PVR) forwarded for viewing at any location where they have a computer display and a high-speed Internet connection, [12] is a major benefit to people with busy schedules outside home. These have caused a massive impact on the movie industry, which has created a lot of competition among DVD rental companies and as well as movie theatres. [13] According to the report Online Movies: A Global Strategic Business report presented by Global Industry Analysts, the world online movie market is expected to grow up to $ 4.44 billions by 2017. The rapid increase of movie downloads through the Internet is a result of wide availability and introduction in more advanced broadband facilities with computers consisting of hard drives with a larger capacity. Furthermore, key players in the market such as Apple and Netflix have introduced Internet ready set-top boxes, providing the ability for the consumers to download the preferred movies or television shows to their personal home theatres. [11] 3.1 Key Players The growing trend in the online movie industry has created a considerable number of players in the market. The following analysis is based on the key players that are currently competing among each other. Netflix The movie renting was taken to a new level when Netflix introduced their home delivery service to the customers, which created a competitive advantage over many other movie rental services. Thereafter, Netflix introduced the option of accessing unlimited video streaming online to the customers without having to rent DVDs. [6] They also have signed a $ 1 billion deal with Paramount Pictures, MGM and Lions Gate for their content to be added to the services. [6] Netflix recently announced they would be reducing the number of DVDs mailed out than the year before, as there was an 86% increase in the quarterly profits of online movie streaming. [6] But the company also stated that there is a possibility of a substantial increase in the license cost of content to its streaming services by the second quarter. [7] VUDU VUDU is a service where recent movies are supplied on demand without a monthly subscription or contract. [19] The consumers only have to pay a fee of US$ 2/- per movie rented for 02 nights. According to Pogue, 2010 it is a set top box that connects to the Internet, which provides a vast range movies that arrives on the same day the movies come out on DVDs. [8] They recently developed their system by collaborating with other companies such as LG, Samsung and Mitsubishi, where the same service is built into the TVs and Blu-Ray players. [8] Redbox This is a movie rental service available in the form of kiosks all over the United States. There are over 27,000 kiosks located nationwide in most convenient places for consumers such as grocery stores and convenience shops. Consumers are able to reserve movies online or through the Redbox i-phone application, making it possible to rent on the run. [14] You Tube A recent announcement made by You Tube stating that they will be expanding their online streaming movie rental service by adding 3000 movies in agreement with Universal Studios, Sony and Warner Brothers for their movies to be rented on site. [5] 4.0 Impact on the MESO factor Consumer Behaviour In order to understand the impact on consumer behaviour in relation to the topic, it is important to derive it as a concept. According to Schiffman et al, 2001, [15]consumer behaviour is defined as how consumers act in the processes of seeking, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing products and services that they expect to result in their satisfaction and personal needs. According to the interview held with Mr. Bennett Rathnayake, he stated that there is a clear decrease in the number of people attending cinemas in Sri Lanka over the last 10 years. [a] He stated that online movie streaming has become more popular among the younger generation and most viewers are quite comfortable with watching the latest releases online or on DVD rather than in the cinema. However, he also stated that this is also affected by the time taken for a movie to be shown in Sri Lankan cinemas compared to the time of the worldwide releases. The impact on consumer behaviour by online movie streaming and rentals can be explained through the concept Diffusion of Innovation, which is the process by which the acceptance of an innovation over a period of time is spread by communication to members of a social system. [16] Not all new products or services have the potential to be accepted by consumers. However, the online movie streaming and rental market has managed to capture a large audience through the following characteristics that have an influence on the consumer acceptance of new products. 4.1 Relative Advantage This is the degree to which potential consumers perceive a new product as superior to existing substitutes. Consumers have come a long way from going to a movie theatre on a Saturday night with friends to merely renting out a movie from Blockbuster and watching it right at home. The present has become even more advanced that they do not even have to go out to rent a movie but get the DVD delivered to their doorstep. This type of convenient methods were as previously discussed, was made possible by billion dollar companies such as Netflix where renting a movie is just one click away. Most consumers prefer convenience, which reduces the time factor in making purchasing decisions. For instance, the movies those are available for rental will be displayed online in contrast to a scenario where the consumers have to be disappointed when the required DVD is not available in a movie rental store or a kiosk. Also, all these Internet services are easily accessible in terms of feasibility. 4.2 Compatibility This is the degree to which potential consumers feel a new product is consistent with their present needs, values and practices. Most consumers are highly literate in technologically advanced devices, which has led into a drastic change in the life styles and values practiced by them. They constantly make use of on demand amenities such as instant downloading and streaming videos on their personal mobiles, i-phones, i-pads, blackberrys etc. that conveniently satisfies their needs. 4.3 Complexity This is the degree to which a new product is difficult to understand or use affects product acceptance. According to Internet usage statistics, the number of Internet users in the world has grown by 444.8 % from the year 2000 to 2010. [16] This could be a clear indication of the consumers evolving from a manual to a digital era, which has made them well informed and updated on new technologies. Most online movie streaming and rental websites are less complex and easily interpreted by consumers that has made them accept it in a short time span. 4.5 Trialabilty This is the degree to which a new product is capable of being tried on a limited basis. There are many online renting and streaming options available for the clients. For instance, the consumers are able to compare the speed of which a movie or a video can be streamed online, among more than one competitor in the market. According to Pouge, 2010 [8], videos provided by Vudu are much clear than those of Netflix. However, these views can be differed from consumer perceptions and loyalty towards each individuals preferences. 4.6 Observabilty This is the degree to which a products benefits or attributes can be observed, imagined, or described to potential consumers. Due to the high usage of Internet advertising, the visibility of online movie streaming and rental services are very much high and easily diffused to the consumers. In addition to the above factors, the consumers are also cost conscious with regard to entertainment. Affordability plays a major role in most consumers lives as the cost of living has taken a high rise especially after the recent recession condition that affected most parts of the world. Most consumers sought alternatives for entrainment and adopted to low cost or in some cases free services such as streaming and renting movies online. 5.0 Findings Discussion According to Theatrical Statistics, although the U.S. / Canada box office releases have increased by 15% in 2010 over the past 5 years, the movie admissions or tickets sold have declined by 5% compared to 2008 level. [4] In contrast to the above research findings, one may argue that the excitement of attending a movie theatre and experiencing it on a wide screen with a surround sound system cannot be compared to the same on a home movie entertainment system. Although most cinemas are struggling to attract more moviegoers, new technologies such as 3D movies have attracted a considerable amount of consumers. At least one 3D movie was viewed by more than one in three people in the U.S. / Canada in 2010. [4] However, 3D viewing is highly correlated by demographic categories where it is more popular among the youngsters when compared to the age category of over 40 years. [4] According to the survey carried out 82% of the participants stated that they download movies most of the time where 7% stated that they watch movies at movie theatres. They were also asked to give out reasons as to why they prefer each mode to the other, and 69% of the participants responded stating that the frequency of movie released in Sri Lanka are low and by the time they are released the movies are already out on DVD or available online. [Appendix 1] However, these data is only limited to a few number of participants and is intricate to limit to a certain demographical sector. There are also downfalls to the high frequency of consumers streaming movies online. For instance, unnecessary harmful bugs and viruses can be transmitted through unsecured websites and request for personal financial information of the consumers resulting in installing malware on users computers. [3] It is often encountered that cybercrooks advertise on-demand movies where the users are asked to download anti-virus security software that that helps users to download movies automatically without the consent of the user thus resulting in movie fans to be exposed to unauthorised and illegal content as well as malvertising  [2]  and malicious code downloaded with streamed movies. [3] 6.0 Recommendations Strategic Response to Changes in the Movie Industry The digital advancements have made changes in the industry in many means mainly creating a competitive environment among movie rental companies. Most companies such as Blockbuster movie rentals and movie theatres have gone out of business as Internet has cultivated a change in consumer behaviour. As a result of online rental facilities, consumers do not have to worry about renting out a movie from a store and returning it the next morning to avoid late fee charges. However, in response, AMC theatres recently announced that they would be updating the MovieWatcher rewards program by replacing it in response to the frequent requests by audience for richer rewards. [1] This is an attempt to attract more moviegoers to theatres in an environment of films being widely available through the Internet and videos-on-demand. It is recommended for the marketers within the industry to follow these types of methods in order to retain the moviegoer audience and increase the frequency in terms of cinema attendance. More serious concerns have raised such as copyright issues and during the interview carried out with Mr. Thissa Nagodavithana stated that, although he is in possession of the copyrights of old Sinhala movie broadcasting, most websites that stream videos online illegally uploads pirated copies making it difficult to preserve copyrights to them. [b] [3] As a strategic response, it can be recommended for the marketers in the industry to keep up with the new technologies and introduce new products and market launches in order to adapt to these changes taken place in the movie industry. Furthermore, it has been brought into notice that there is a major cost reduction in using digital technologies in movie making rather than putting them up in film, which is cheaper to shoot, cut and duplicate. [2] This could be a major advantage for cinema owner where piracy has become a huge problem in making profits. 7.0 Conclusion Online movie streaming and rental trend has caused drastic changes in the movie industry as well as a major impact on consumer behaviour. A lot of competition among key players in the online market had risen making companies such as Blockbuster and cinemas go out of business. For the survival of the industry strategic responses should be carried out through adapting to new technologies and introducing new launches. Marketing professionals attached to the industry should adapt to these changes by improving their skills, attitudes and behaviour and cater to their audience accordingly. Word Count: 2567 (Excluding the abstract) Author 50/44, 1st Lane, Edirisinghe Road, Mirihana, Nugegoda Sri Lanka 03.05.2011 Chief Conference Organizer, Film Industry Conference 2011, Geological Society, Burlington House, London Dear Sir / Madam, Online Movies Rentals and its Impact on Consumer Behaviour I would like the opportunity to present a discussion paper on Online Movies Rentals and its Impact on Consumer Behaviour at your above-mentioned conference, which is to be held on the 13th of June 2011. I have given below a brief description of the discussion paper and its usefulness to your audience. The constantly changing environment along with technological advancements in the motion picture industry has changed the consumer behaviour causing a great impact on the cinema industry. Wide availability of movies on various forms such as online movies, online rentals, Red-box, i- tunes Net-flix etc. has changed the competitive nature in the industry. I have been informed that the participants in of this conference are all attached to the cinema and movie industry and majority will be marketers involved in this sector. Therefore I feel that this discussion paper with the above mentioned points would be ideal in order to raise awareness and introduce methods of countering these changes faced as a result of consumerism. Based on this discussion paper, I feel that this would be a very significant topic with regard to the role of modern marketers who are involved in different industries. As a result I feel that this would be a better learning opportunity for all involved at your conference. I believe that a discussion paper of this nature would be relevant in todays context and is applicable to any industry facing changes due to consumption habits. Trust the above would substantiate the benefits to all present at your conference to seek and expand knowledge thereby improving their respective industries. Please feel free to contact me for further clarifications or information with this regard. Thanking you, Yours Faithfully, Author Word Count: 321

Classical Liberalism VS Classical Conservatism Essay -- American Gover

Are you Republican or Democrat? Maybe you are Conservative or Liberal? What do these terms mean and how did they begin? Classical Conservatism is defined as â€Å"a political philosophy emphasizing the need for the principles of natural law and transcendent moral order.†(Frohnen, Beer, and Nelson, 2006) Classical Liberalism is described as â€Å"a philosophy committed to the ideal of limited government and liberty of individuals including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and free markets.† (Hudelson, 1999) These two ideas have shaped our philosophies and parties for centuries to come. These philosophies were made possible by many bright men of the time like Edmund Burke, John Adams, John Locke and Adam Smith. Classical conservatism or traditional conservatism, Burkean conservatism, and Toryism, is a party that has re-expressed their convections to fit the time. (Frohnen, Beer, and Nelson, 2006) In classical conservatism, many parties have adapted their view points. One of the first parties in American that adapted the philosophies of conservatism was the Whigs. The Whigs opposed monarchial power, advocated internal reform of administration, and freedom under the law. They believed in balancing orders in the common wealth and religious toleration. (Kirk, 1953) One person highly recognized for his work in the public sector for conservatism was Edmund Burke. Edmund Burke was born January 12, 1729 in Dublin, Ireland, and died July 9, 1797 in Beaconsfield, England. (Lock, 1999) During his sixty-eight years, he was a very smart and good man; He was an Irish statesman, author, orator, and political theorist and philosopher. Edmund Burke was known for supporting the American Revolution but opposing the Fr... ...ssical conservatives are scared of it, but they do know that is needed with some restrictions, or as modern liberals would say, â€Å"safety nets, lots and lots of safety nets.† Classical liberals love the free market system because of what it can do for the economy and society. Classical liberalism and classical conservatism are closely based as seen by Edmund Burke who was admired for his political philosophies from both classical liberalism and classical conservatism. Yet, with any group of people, not everyone is going to agree, and parties form even if it over a small issue. Consider the christian faith, there are many different denominations because of the beliefs in minor doctrine, but they all believe that Jesus is the Son of God, like the classical liberals and classical conservatives believe in the Constitution. So, what party are you in?

Brain Imaging

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a condition characterized by recurrent intrusive, often repugnant, and always anxiety-ridden thoughts and images and by sets of ritualized behaviors performed compulsively by the sufferer in an attempt to allay the anxiety. The compulsive behaviors typically provide little relief, however, and the sufferer remains relegated to an anxious and painful daily experience.Thus, the patient who drives over the same speed bump each morning may find it impossible to relieve oneself of the concern that one may have, on a particular morning, driven over a pedestrian instead, and one is compelled to circle the block in a ritualized fashion searching for a crushed body in the street. While the sufferer is able to acknowledge the perverse and senseless nature of the rituals, this insight alone fails to relieve the experience of helplessness (Pauls et al. , 1995).As has been true of most psychiatric disorders, traditional etiologic explanations have been based on psychoanalytic findings and constructs. Formulations of the illness based on cognitive processing models represent a more recent development. Still more recently, a significant reconceptualization of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology has followed the development of modern functional imaging technologies, and a biologically-oriented and brain-centered view of OCD has emerged in light of the substantial findings from the last decades.The most popular brain theory to date explains the pathogenesis of OCD as an imbalance in the action of a pair of interrelated neural circuits which, under normal circumstances, maintain one another in a state of functionally balanced tone. It may be parenthetically added that, to the extent these brain data are themselves understood, it has become possible to evaluate psychological theories of OCD in functional terms (Robinson et al. , 1991). The neurobiology of OCD has been a subject of research interest for several decades, with the disorder havi ng become increasingly formulated as a neuropsychiatric illness.Modern neuropsychiatric hypotheses have been guided by data having its origins in data derived from the direct study of OCD patients using newly developed non-invasive brain imaging techniques. Significant findings from this area of inquiry are summarized in the following pages. Background to OCD OCD symptomatology has been reported among patients with closed head trauma to the basal gangliar structures and among those with basal ganglia lesions demonstrable subsequent to carbon monoxide poisoning and to wasp sting (McKeon, 1984).Symptoms have additionally presented as a clinical feature both of striatal necrosis and frontal lobe lesion (Siebyl et al, 1989). Thus, the initial background of data around OCD has implicated the basal gangliar structures, particularly the striatum, and, to a lesser extent, the frontal lobe. Imaging studies of the living brain are generally divisible into two distinct categories, those repres enting morphologic or structural abnormality, on the one hand, and those representing disturbance of function at the cellular or metabolic levels, possibly with only very small or wholly undetectable changes in morphology, on the other.The distinction is important: while investigation at the level of structure and morphology will reveal atrophic change or gross pathology (eg. , tumor, trauma, etc. ,) investigation at the metabolic level provides a window directly into what has been termed, in traditional discourse, â€Å"functional mental illness. † That is, structures which have retained their morphologic integrity may nonetheless be shown to be functioning in metabolically hyperactive or hypoactive state relative to normal. In the interest of maintaining this important distinction, studies deriving from the two imaging modality groups are reviewed here separately.Structural brain imaging studies Luxenberg, Swedo, Flament et al. (1989) used quantitative Computed Tomography ( qCT) to analyze the morphologic volumes of various brain structures believed key in OCD. Clinical subjects with childhood-onset OCD were selected on the basis of active and unabated symptomatology of at least one year during their illness. While depressive symptomatology with onset after obsessional illness was not an exclusion criterion, none of the patients was depressed at the time of the qCT examination.The researchers found that mean caudate nucleus volume in the patients was significantly less than that of control subjects. No other significant brain abnormalities were found. Behar, Rapoport and Berg, et al (1984), report on the administration of CT scans and neuropsychological test measures to 16 adolescents with OCD and 16 matched controls. Patients were found to have significantly increased ventricular size (relative to whole-brain volume) and to show spatial-perceptual deficits on the Money Road Map Test of Directional Sense.The Money Map Test uses a simulated street map w ith a route indicated by a dotted line. The subject traverses the route and indicates a right or left turn at each choice point. Near the midpoint of the examination the subject is required to mentally rotate himself in order to reverse his own right-left reference. Patients with frontal lobe lesions have been reported to do poorly on this task. Subjects' ventricular size and neuropsychological test findings were not significantly correlated, however, and the researchers suggest that significant co-morbidity within the patient sample led to unexpected results.In fact, the patient sample had been selected on the basis of its extraordinary psychiatric symptomatology: â€Å"It is possible that (the OCD subjects) are atypical in that adult patients commonly report being able to conceal their symptoms after clear onset in childhood† (Behar, Rapoport and Berg, et al. , 1984, p. 365). The results of the Behar study are also inconsistent with those of Insel and associates (1983), who report neither ventricular enlargement on CT brain imaging nor significant neuropsychological deficits on the Halstead-Reitan battery of neuropsychological tests in 18 adult OCD sufferers.Confirmation for ventricular enlargement is likewise not observed in the present majority of structural brain studies. Garber, Ananth, Chiu, and colleagues (1988) performed Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans on 32 patients meeting the DSM-III criteria for OCD in an investigation of the caudate and ventricular findings. Subjects were judged free of psychopathology other than OCD on the basis of psychiatric testing and evaluation, and severity of OCD symptoms was rated at the time of MRI by means of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale.MRI creates highly detailed anatomical images using radiofrequency resonance signals elicited from the hydrogen atoms of tissue under study. The technique produces structural images which are in many respects (eg. , spatial resolution) quite superior to those provided by CT (Garber et al. , 1988). Further, a technical routine known as â€Å"spin-lattice relaxation time† (or Tl), in which a summary measurement of the time required for protons excited within host molecules to relax to baseline is taken as a direct measurement of the mobility of water protons in membranes and fluids.In the study with OCD patients, Behar and colleagues discovered significantly lengthier corrected Tl values for clinical subjects relative to controls in the lenticular nuclei and the right frontal lobes white matter. Because of the high degree of heterogeneity in both samples, subgroups within the clinical sample were developed on the basis of family history and medication status and analyzed against one another. No between group differences were noted based on medication status.Patients with family histories of OCD differed from those with no such histories in the anterior cingulum, showing significantly briefer Tl values. No gross structural differenc es were specific to the OCD group. Garber and colleagues (1988) ascribe the altered Tl include to subtle atrophy in the right frontal cortex or diminished blood flow to this region, corresponding to a decline in frontal cortical metabolism. Involvement is also suggested on the parts of the cingulate gyms and lenticular nuclei.These areas are components of frontal-limbic pathways that may mediate the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder; surgical alteration of the relationships among structures within these pathways have produced symptomatic improvements. Moreover, the authors propose that hereditary influences on the illness may be most directly expressed in the cingulate region. The implication of the frontal lobes and cingulate gyms in OCD suggests abnormalities in cortical-striatal-thalamic-cortical circuits.Robinson, Wu, and Munne et al. (1995) used MRI in a structural volumetric analysis of selected brain regions within or adjacent to these circuits in 26 patients with OCD (DSM-VI-R criteria). While subjects were screened for a number of exclusionary criteria, co-morbidity with depression was not among these. Twenty-six screened normal control subjects were matched to the OCD patients. In results which directly contradict those of Scarone, Colombo, and Ambruzzese, et al.(1992), in which right caudate nucleus size was found by MRI to be increased in patients with OCD, Robinson and colleagues report a significantly diminished morphometic volume for the caudate nuclei bilaterally. These findings are consistent with those of Luxenberg et al. (1988), described above, in which morphometric analysis by CT indicated significantly reduced caudate nucleus volume in patients with OCD. Study by Alyward, Schwartz, and Machlin et al. (1991) report no statistically significant differences between OCD and normal subjects on MRI studies of caudate volume.Their report demonstrates a direct correlation in patients with OCD between the putamen volume and the Global Seve rity of psychopathology score developed by the National Institute of Mental Health as well as between the caudate volume and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score, but found no correlations with the Y-BOCS total score or with the obsessions or compulsions subscore on this instrument. Curiously, however, division of the patients with OCD into subgroups based on a history of depression did not demonstrate a significant difference.Imaging measures were similar between subjects with and without medication histories. There was no evidence of ventricular enlargement in patients with OCD. As a group, studies of brain morphology and structure have returned substantially inconsistent findings in OCD; particularly differing are reports on the caudate nucleus and striatal region. Different study methods and small sample sizes may account partially for these discrepant findings and represent problems which must ultimately be overcome before a valid consensus can be reached.The significant prevalence of OCD symptomatology within neurologic populations and its high co-morbidity with depression contribute to the potential for heterogeneity in OCD samples (Pauls, 1995). The Alyward finding of increased caudate volume in OCD subjects with higher depression scale scores, but not among OCD subjects at large, not only reveals the heterogeneity of the disorder but illustrates the necessity of rigorously defining sample parameters before meaningful comparison and replication may be undertaken.Such rigor has not yet been sufficiently applied in structural imaging studies. Notwithstanding these issues, the question of a chronic degenerative process with resultant caudate diminution over time is suggested by certain of the data, in particular light of the fact that most of the OCD patients studied by the Robinson and Luxenberg groups were longtime sufferers. Longitudinal follow-up studies would be needed to determine whether caudate volume changes in OCD are progressive.Additiona lly, because structural brain imaging modalities are sensitive only to pathology which has resulted in physical change in tissue, they omit consideration of metabolic or functional change. The following section offers a discussion of imaging findings based on functional processes of the brain; modalities of this type substantially enlarge the data available from structural imaging alone. Functional brain imaging studiesFunctional brain imaging refers collectively to that set of techniques used to derive images reflecting biochemical, physiologic, or electrical properties of the central nervous system (Devous, 1995). The most developed of these techniques have in common the registration of such data in digitized maps which thus represent visually to the diagnostician or researcher the relative metabolic activations among brain structures of interest (provided that the dimensions of these lay within the spatial resolution capability of the particular technique).The maps can typically be rendered in any standard anatomical plane for the sake of further clarifying these metabolic relationships. Positron Emission Tomography (PET), so named for the species of radioactive decay on which it depends, and the more economical and widely available modality of Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) each registers in a digitized functional map relative regional metabolic activations for any given brain state (eg. , under challenge, during active symptomatology, at rest, and so forth).SPECT maps the distribution of a radioactively labeled pharmaceutical administered intravenously administered to a subject and typically designed to integrate itself into brain blood flow processes in a manner correspondent to the relative activations of the latter (Devous, 1995). The emission of gamma radiation from the agent after it has been allowed to incorporate itself into brain tissue enables the subsequent mapping of blood perfusion densities across cortical regions with the use of SPECT imaging hardware.Blood flow and metabolism are tightly coupled within the brain under most normal and pathologic circumstances, and therefore inferences about neurometabolism are accurately informed by measures of relative blood flow (Devous, 1995). One of the more popular radiopharmaceuticals for such blood flow mapping is referred to generically as â€Å"HMPAO,† an acronym for the chemical structure of the agent. Bound to this chemical structure is the radioactive element Technetium-99m, which is favored as an imaging isotope because of its half-life and energy characteristics (Devous, 1995).Two facts of brain function are pertinent to any review of imaging studies in this area. The first of these requires the reader to keep in mind that an activated cortical region may be inhibitory or excitatory. In the basal ganglia system, for example, excitatory and inhibitory input sf contribute mutually to a functionally balanced neural tone. The second fact is closely related: A system which lies efferent to the hypermetabolic one will correspond to the nature of this input: Inhibitory or excitatory.Notwithstanding the complexities connected to image interpretation, the functional modalities have permitted the development of a more conclusive body of evidence regarding brain function in OCD than has been the case with structural imaging modalities. A consensus has emerged around increased activity in the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Less agreement exists with respect to the role of the striatum and associated basal gangliar structures. Rubin, Villanueva-Meyer, and Ananth et al.(1995) studied ten adult male patients with OCD and ten age-matched adult male normal controls using SPECT Patients with OCD had significantly increased uptake of the metabolic tracer radionuclide in the high dorsal parietal cortex bilaterally, in the left posterofrontal cortex, and in the orbital frontal cortex bilaterally The patients also had significantly reduced t racer uptake in the head of the caudate nucleus bilaterally, but not in the putamen or thalamus, consistent with the hypothesized reduction of caudate nucleus activity in OCD. Baxter, Schwartz, Maziotta et al.(1992) reports findings which conflict with those of Rubin and co-workers on the activation of the caudate nuclei. In the Baxter study, ten non-depressed OCD patients were compared with ten age- and gender-matched normals using PET scans. Subjects were screened for current co-morbidity with major depression, bipolar disorder, cyclothymic disorder and dysthymia. All but two subjects had suffered from depressive disorders in the past. Comparison of the scans indicated that patients with OCD had significantly higher overall glucose metabolic rate values than normal controls.Orbital gyri were significantly higher in metabolic activation bilaterally, as were the bilateral heads of the caudate nuclei. As described, Rubin et al. (1995) report diminished metabolic activity in the head of the caudate nuclei bilaterally. Machlin, Harris, and Pearlson, el al. (1991) found elevated blood flow in the prefrontal cortex and cingulate (termed the medial-frontal region) in ten OCD patients studied with SPECT relative to a matched sample of eight normals.Several other well-conceived functional imaging studies implicate the structures of both the Papez circuit and Modell's hypothesized fronto-striatal-pallido-thalamic-frontal loop. Swedo et al. (1989) compared 18 OCD patients and 18 normals using PET, and while no whole-brain glucose metabolic differences were found between groups, the left orbitofrontal, right sensorimotor, and bilateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate regions were notably higher in adults with childhood-onset OCD. Within this group, a positive correlation emerged between glucose uptake in the prefrontal and orbitofrontal regions and state measures of anxiety.In addition, responders to treatment with clomipramine were distinguishable from non-responders on the basis of regional changes in the right cingulate and right orbitofrontal regions, with response failures evincing significantly higher pre-therapy activations. Baxter et al. (1992), in a series of studies with a total of 24 adult patients with OCD, found increased FDG uptake in the cerebral hemispheres overall, and in the orbital gyri and caudate nuclei in the OCD group as compared to normal controls.Rubin, et al (1995) used SPECT imaging and found elevated uptake in the dorsal parietal cortex bilaterally, the left posterofrontal cortex and the OFC bilaterally. The group also found decreased uptake in the heads of the caudate nuclei bilaterally. Two paired comparisons have been made of OCD subjects before and after symptom aggravation. Rauch et al. (1994) used oxygen-15 labeled carbon dioxide PET to study individually tailored provocative stimuli in order to provoke symptoms in eight patients with OCD.Paired comparisons pre- and post-challenge yielded an increase in regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) in the right caudate nucleus, left anterior cingulate cortex, and also bilaterally in the OFC subsequent to challenge. McGuire et al. (1992) studied four OCD patients during actual exposure to contaminants in a pattern tailored individually to produce successively greater degrees of anxiety. rCBF was found to increase in the OFC, neostriatum. globus pallidus, and thalamus in relation to the urge to perform compulsive movements.These two paired comparisons of patients pre- and post-challenge provide a unique opportunity to examine differences between a resting and an obsessional state in the same patient during a brief period. Further, such an examination sheds light on the manner in which inconsistencies among functional imaging studies may be due to variations in the mental state of obsessional patients at the time of the imaging studies. While the architecture of the anxiety challenge varies considerably between the Rauch and McGuire protocols, it remain s nonetheless somewhat disappointing that more consistent findings are not elicited in the paired comparisons.In these studies, as in the literature more generally, substantial disagreement exists on the response of the cingulate cortex and caudate nuclei. It is noteworthy, however, that the two paired challenge studies concur with respect to the hyperactivated state of the OFC. It is on the issue of striatal, specifically caudate, activation and morphology that most disagreement exists across both the structural and functional brain imaging studies. It is possible to speculate on the cause of this inconsistency: Caudate metabolism may be a state, rather than a trait, marker in OCD.It may also be that pathology in this region is progressive: Subjects with damaged striatal mechanisms may, for instance, manifest a hypermetabolic condition in the region for some lengthy period before an atrophic process ultimately begins and results in the opposite finding, hypometabolism and volumetri c diminution over a period of time. Uniformity across subject samples in terms both of length and history of illness and co-morbidity with other pathology is therefore essential to further investigation of this region in OCD. ConclusionThe two categories of imaging study at times assume roles along a continuum of pathological severity or etiology. For example, a degenerative change in tissue density or overall size and shape may have developed only after a lengthy period of metabolic dysregulation. An imaging technique sensitive only to morphology would pick up such pathology only at a relatively late stage in its development. Early changes, those occurring at the metabolic level, would be visualized only by means of a functional imaging technique. On the issue of orbital and frontal activation there exists substantial agreement.Although a great deal of data implicates these structures, it is not yet possible to demonstrate which specific obsessive-compulsive symptoms are related to the observed abnormalities in these neuroanatomic regions or what specific role the region plays in the neuropsychology of the illness. References Alyward E. H, Schwartz J, Machlin S, Pearison G. D. (1991). Bicaudate ratio as a measure of caudate volume on MR images. American Journal ofNeuroradiology, 12, 1217-1222. Baxter L. R. , Schwartz J. M. , Bergman K. S. , Szuba M. P. , Guze B. H. , Mazziotta J C , Alazraki A, Selin C. E. , Phelps ME (1992).Caudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 681-689. Behar D, Rapoport J. L. , Berg C. J. , Denckla MB, Mann L, Cox C , Fedio P. , Zahn T, Wolfman M. G (1984). Computerized tomography and neuropsychological test measures in adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 363-368. Devous M. D. , (1995). Instrumentation, radiopharmaceuticals, and technical factors. In: Van Heertum R. L. , Tikoftky R. S. (eds. ) Cerebral SPECTImaging. New York, NY: Raven Press, Ltd.1995. Garber H. J. , Weilburg J. B. , Buonanno F. S. (1988). Use of magnetic resonance imaging in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 164-171. Insel T. R. , Donnelly E. F. , Lalakea ML, Alterman IS, Murphy D. L (1983). Neuropsychological studies of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 18, 741-751. Luxenberg J. S. , Swedo S. E. , Flament M. F. , Friedland R. P. , Rapoport JR. , Rapoport S. I. (1988). Neuroanatomical abnormalities in obsessive-compulsive disorder detected with quantitative X-ray computed tomography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1089-1093.Machlin S. R. , Harris G. J. , Pearlson CD. , Hoehn-Sanc R, Jeffery P. , Camargo E. E. (1991). Elevated medial-frontal cerebral blood flow in obsessive-compulsive patients: ASPECT study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1240-1242. McGuire P. K. , Bench C. J. , Frith CD, Marks I. M. , Frackowiak R. S. J. , Dolan R. J. ( 1994). Functional anatomy of obsessive compulsive phenomena. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 459-468. McKeon J. , McGuffin P. , Robinson P. (1984). Obsessive-compulsive neurosis following head injury: A Report of four cases. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 190-192.Pauls D. L. , Alsobrook J. P. , Goodman W, Rasmussen S. , Leckman J. F. (1995). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 76-84. Rauch S. L. , Jenicke MA, Alpert N. M. , Baer L, Breiter H. C. , Savage C. R. , Fischman A. J. (1994). Regional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive compulsive disorder using oxygen-15-labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 62-70. Robinson D. , Wu H. , Munne R. A. , Ashtari M. , Alvir J. M. J. , Lemer G. , Koreen A. , Cole K, Bogerts B.(1995). Reduced caudate nucleus volume in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 393-398. Rubin R. T. , Ananth J, Vilianueva-Meyer J. , Trajmar PC, Mena I. (1995). Regional Xenon-133 cerebral blood flow and cerebral Tc-99m-HMPAO uptake in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder before and during treatment. Biological Psychiatry, 38, 429-437. Scarone S. , Colombo C, Ambruzzese L. S. , Ronchi P. , Locatelli M , Smeraldi S. G. , ScottiG. (1992). Increased right caudate nucleus size in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Detection with magnetic resonance imaging.Psychiatry and Research Neuroimaging, 45, 115-121. Seibyl, J. P. , Krystal J. H. , Goodman W. K. (1989). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in a patient with a right frontal lobe lesion: Response to lithium augmentation of trancypromine. Neuropsychiatry. Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 1, 295-299. Swedo S. E. , Rapoport J. L. , Cheslow D. L. , Leonard H. L. , Ayoub E. M. , Hosier D. M. , Wald E. R. (1989). High prevalence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in patients with Sydenham's chorea. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 246-249.

The Effect of Computer in Our Daily Lives

Why Do They Fail? Statistics show that most people who begin high school finish. Some drop out, of course, but approximately three-quarters earn a diploma. At the post-secondary level, however, fewer than two-thirds of the students complete their program of study. Why do so many college and university students drop out? Knowing the factors that prevent students from completing their post-secondary programs may prove crucial to you regardless of whether you are presently a college student or thinking of becoming one.Most educators agree that the principal causes of failure are lack of basic skills, lack of study skills, and lack of motivation. A firm grasp of basic skills—what are termed the three Rs: reading, writing, and arithmetic—is a must for college or university work. Not only are texts and research material more difficult to understand than they were in high school, but also the quantity of required reading is greater.The ability to express oneself clearly in sta ndard written English is essential; garbled essays, ungrammatical reports, or poorly spelled and punctuated papers will be routinely failed by instructors, regardless of the ideas the writer may think he is expressing. Similarly, mathematical skills are essential to a student’s success in many post-secondary programs. Business, science, technology, and some applied arts programs require sound computational skills. Post-secondary students who lack these basic skills often find little remedial help available and little instructor tolerance for poor work; hence, they fall behind and drop out.